Bridging Design and Energy Systems: An Integrated Framework for Architectural Agency in Off-Grid Housing

Published in Applied Energy, this research presents a comprehensive review of 97 international studies examining the future of off-grid and autonomous housing. The paper identifies a critical gap in current research and practice: while energy systems, building performance, occupant behaviour, and policy are often studied independently, they are rarely considered as an integrated whole. Through the development of a novel design-led framework, the research positions architecture as the key link between technology, human behaviour, environmental performance, and governance. The findings provide a pathway for creating more resilient, sustainable, and human-centred off-grid housing, demonstrating how thoughtful architectural design can significantly influence long-term energy performance, occupant experience, and the success of autonomous living systems.